Saint Thomas Aquinas
Philosopher,
theologian, doctor of the Church (Angelicus Doctor), patron of Catholic universities,
colleges, and schools. Born at Rocca Secca in the Kingdom of Naples, 1225 or
1227; died at Fossa Nuova, 7 March, 1274.
I. LIFE
The great
outlines and all the important events of his life are known, but biographers
differ as to some details and dates. Death prevented Henry Denifle from executing
his project of writing a critical life of the saint. Denifle's friend and pupil,
Dominic Prümmer, O.P., professor of theology in the University of Fribourg,
Switzerland, took up the work and published the "Fontes Vitae S. Thomae Aquinatis,
notis historicis et criticis illustrati"; and the first fascicle (Toulouse,
1911) has appeared, giving the life of St. Thomas by Peter Calo (1300) now published
for the first time. From Tolomeo of Lucca . . . we learn that at the time of
the saint's death there was a doubt about his exact age (Prümmer, op. cit.,
45). The end of 1225 is usually assigned as the time of his birth. Father Prümmer,
on the authority of Calo, thinks 1227 is the more probable date (op. cit., 28).
All agree that he died in 1274.
Landulph,
his father, was Count of Aquino; Theodora, his mother, Countess of Teano. His
family was related to the Emperors Henry VI and Frederick II, and to the Kings
of Aragon, Castile, and France. Calo relates that a holy hermit foretold his
career, saying to Theodora before his birth: "He will enter the Order of Friars
Preachers, and so great will be his learning and sanctity that in his day no
one will be found to equal him" (Prümmer, op. cit., 18). At the age of five,
according to the custom of the times, he was sent to receive his first training
from the Benedictine monks of Monte Cassino. Diligent in study, he was thus
early noted as being meditative and devoted to prayer, and his preceptor was
surprised at hearing the child ask frequently: "What is God?"
About the
year 1236 he was sent to the University of Naples. Calo says that the change
was made at the instance of the Abbot of Monte Cassino, who wrote to Thomas's
father that a boy of such talents should not be left in obscurity (Prümmcr,
op. cit., 20). At Naples his preceptors were Pietro Martini and Petrus Hibernus.
The chronicler says that he soon surpassed Martini at grammar, and he was then
given over to Peter of Ireland, who trained him in logic and the natural sciences.
The customs of the times divided the liberal arts into two courses: the Trivium,
embracing grammar, logic, and rhetoric; the Quadrivium, comprising music, mathematics,
geometry, and astronomy . . . . Thomas could repeat the lessons with more depth
and lucidity than his masters displayed. The youth's heart had remained pure
amidst the corruption with which he was surrounded, and he resolved to embrace
the religious life.
Some time
between 1240 and August, 1243, he received the habit of the Order of St. Dominic,
being attracted and directed by John of St. Julian, a noted preacher of the
convent of Naples. The city wondered that such a noble young man should don
the garb of poor friar. His mother, with mingled feelings of joy and sorrow,
hastened to Naples to see her son. The Dominicans, fearing she would take him
away, sent him to Rome, his ultimate destination being Paris or Cologne. At
the instance of Theodora, Thomas's brothers, who were soldiers under the Emperor
Frederick, captured the novice near the town of Aquapendente and confined him
in the fortress of San Giovanni at Rocca Secca. Here he was detained nearly
two years, his parents, brothers, and sisters endeavouring by various means
to destroy his vocation. The brothers even laid snares for his virtue, but the
pure-minded novice drove the temptress from his room with a brand which he snatched
from the fire. Towards the end of his life, St. Thomas confided to his faithful
friend and companion, Reginald of Piperno, the secret of a remarkable favour
received at this time. When the temptress had been driven from his chamber,
he knelt and most earnestly implored God to grant him integrity of mind and
body. He fell into a gentle sleep, and, as he slept, two angels appeared to
assure him that his prayer had been heard. They then girded him about with a
white girdle, saying: "We gird thee with the girdle of perpetual virginity."
And from that day forward he never experienced the slightest motions of concupiscence.
The time
spent in captivity was not lost. His mother relented somewhat, after the first
burst of anger and grief; the Dominicans were allowed to provide him with new
habits, and through the kind offices of his sister he procured some books --
the Holy Scriptures, Aristotle's Metaphysics, and the "Sentences" of Peter Lombard.
After eighteen months or two years spent in prison, either because his mother
saw that the hermit's prophecy would eventually be fulfilled or because his
brothers feared the threats of Innocent IV and Frederick II, he was set at liberty,
being lowered in a basket into the arms of the Dominicans, who were delighted
to find that during his captivity "he had made as much progress as if he had
been in a studium generale" (Calo, op. cit., 24).
Thomas immediately
pronounced his vows, and his superiors sent him to Rome. Innocent IV examined
closely into his motives in joining the Friars Preachers, dismissed him with
a blessing, and forbade any further interference with his vocation. John the
Teutonic, fourth master general of the order, took the young student to Paris
and, according to the majority of the saint's biographers, to Cologne, where
he arrived in 1244 or 1245, and was placed under Albertus Magnus, the most renowned
professor of the order. In the schools Thomas's humility and taciturnity were
misinterpreted as signs of dullness, but when Albert had heard his brilliant
defence of a difficult thesis, he exclaimed: "We call this young man a dumb
ox, hut his bellowing in doctrine will one day resound throughout the world."
In 1245 Albert
was sent to Paris, and Thomas accompanied him as a student. In 1248 both returned
to Cologne. Albert had been appointed regent of the new studium generale, erected
that year by the general chapter of the order, and Thomas was to teach under
him as Bachelor. (On the system of graduation in the thirteenth century see
ORDER OF PREACHERS -- II, A, 1, d). During his stay in Cologne, probably in
1250, he was raised to the priesthood by Conrad of Hochstaden, archbishop of
that city. Throughout his busy life, he frequently preached the Word of God,
in Germany, France, and Italy. His sermons were forceful, redolent of piety,
full of solid instruction, abounding in apt citations from the Scriptures.
In the year
1251 or 1252 the master general of the order, by the advice of Albertus Magnus
and Hugo a S. Charo (Hugh of St. Cher), sent Thomas to fill the office of Bachelor
(sub-regent) in the Dominican studium at Paris. This appointment may be regarded
as the beginning of his public career, for his teaching soon attracted the attention
both of the professors and of the students. His duties consisted principally
in explaining the "Sentences" of Peter Lombard, and his commentaries on that
text-book of theology furnished the materials and, in great part, the plan for
his chief work, the "Summa theologica".
In due time
he was ordered to prepare himself to obtain the degree of Doctor in Theology
from the University of Paris, but the conferring of the degree was postponed,
owing to a dispute between the university and the friars. The conflict, originally
a dispute between the university and the civic authorities, arose from the slaying
of one of the students and the wounding of three others by the city guard. The
university, jealous of its autonomy, demanded satisfaction, which was refused.
The doctors closed their schools, solemnly swore that they would not reopen
them until their demands were granted, and decreed that in future no one should
be admitted to the degree of Doctor unless he would take an oath to follow the
same line of conduct under similar circumstances. The Dominicans and Franciscans,
who had continued to teach in their schools, refused to take the prescribed
oath, and from this there arose a bitter conflict which was at its height when
St. Thomas and St. Bonaventure were ready to be presented for their degrees.
William of St-Amour extended the dispute beyond the original question, violently
attacked the friars, of whom he was evidently jealous, and denied their right
to occupy chairs in the university. Against his book, "De periculis novissimorum
temporum" (The Perils of the Last Times), St. Thomas wrote a treatise "Contra
impugnantes religionem", an apology for the religious orders (Touron, op. cit.,
II, cc. vii sqq.). The book of William of St-Amour was condemned by Alexander
IV at Anagni, 5 October, 1256, and the pope gave orders that the mendicant friars
should be admitted to the doctorate.
About this
time St. Thomas also combated a dangerous book, "The Eternal Gospel" (Touron,
op. cit., II, cxii). The university authorities did not obey immediately; the
influence of St. Louis IX and eleven papal Briefs were required before peace
was firmly established, and St. Thomas was admitted to the degree of Doctor
in Theology. The date of his promotion, as given by many biographers, was 23
October, 1257. His theme was "The Majesty of Christ". His text, "Thou waterest
the hills from thy upper rooms: the earth shall be filled with the fruit of
thy works" (Psalm 103:13), said to have been suggested by a heavenly visitor,
seems to have been prophetic of his career. A tradition says that St. Bonaventure
and St. Thomas received the doctorate on the same day, and that there was a
contest of humility between the two friends as to which should be promoted first.
From this
time St. Thomas's life may be summed up in a few words: praying, preaching,
teaching, writing, journeying. Men were more anxious to hear him than they had
been to hear Albert, whom St. Thomas surpassed in accuracy, lucidity, brevity,
and power of exposition, if not in universality of knowledge. Paris claimed
him as her own; the popes wished to have him near them; the studia of the order
were eager to enjoy the benefit of his teaching; hence we find him successively
at Anagni, Rome, Bologna, Orvieto, Viterbo, Perugia, in Paris again, and finally
in Naples, always teaching and writing, living on earth with one passion, an
ardent zeal for the explanation and defence of Christian truth. So devoted was
he to his sacred task that with tears he begged to be excused from accepting
the Archbishopric of Naples, to which he was appointed by Clement IV in 1265.
Had this appointment been accepted, most probably the "Summa theologica" would
not have been written.
Yielding
to the requests of his brethren, he on several occasions took part in the deliberations
of the general chapters of the order. One of these chapters was held in London
in 1263. In another held at Valenciennes (1259) he collaborated with Albertus
Magnus and Peter of Tarentasia (afterwards Pope Innocent V) in formulating a
system of studies which is substantially preserved to this day in the studia
generalia of the Dominican Order (cf. Douais, op. cit.).
It is not
surprising to read in the biographies of St. Thomas that he was frequently abstracted
and in ecstasy. Towards the end of his life the ecstasies became more frequent.
On one occasion, at Naples in 1273, after he had completed his treatise on the
Eucharist, three of the brethren saw him lifted in ecstasy, and they heard a
voice proceeding from the crucifix on the altar, saying "Thou hast written well
of me, Thomas; what reward wilt thou have?". Thomas replied, "None other than
Thyself, Lord" (Prümmer, op. cit., p. 38). Similar declarations are said to
have been made at Orvieto and at Paris.
On 6 December,
1273, he laid aside his pen and would write no more. That day he experienced
an unusually long ecstasy during Mass; what was revealed to him we can only
surmise from his reply to Father Reginald, who urged him to continue his writings:
"I can do no more. Such secrets have been revealed to me that all I have written
now appears to be of little value" (modica, Prümmer, op. cit., p. 43). The "Summa
theologica" had been completed only as far as the ninetieth question of the
third part (De partibus poenitentiae).
Thomas began
his immediate preparation for death. Gregory X, having convoked a general council,
to open at Lyons on 1 May, 1274, invited St. Thomas and St. Bonaventure to take
part in the deliberations, commanding the former to bring to the council his
treatise "Contra errores Graecorum" (Against the Errors of the Greeks). He tried
to obey, setting out on foot in January, 1274, but strength failed him; he fell
to the ground near Terracina, whence he was conducted to the Castle of Maienza
the home of his niece the Countess Francesca Ceccano. The Cistercian monks of
Fossa Nuova pressed him to accept their hospitality, and he was conveyed to
their monastery, on entering which he whispered to his companion: "This is my
rest for ever and ever: here will I dwell, for I have chosen it" (Psalm 131:14).
When Father Reginald urged him to remain at the castle, the saint replied: "If
the Lord wishes to take me away, it is better that I be found in a religious
house than in the dwelling of a lay person." The Cistercians were so kind and
attentive that Thomas's humility was alarmed. "Whence comes this honour", he
exclaimed, "that servants of God should carry wood for my fire!" At the urgent
request of the monks he dictated a brief commentary on the Canticle of Canticles.
The end was
near; extreme unction was administered. When the Sacred Viaticum was brought
into the room he pronounced the following act of faith:
If in this world
there be any knowledge of this sacrament stronger than that of faith, I wish
now to use it in affirming that I firmly believe and know as certain that
Jesus Christ, True God and True Man, Son of God and Son of the Virgin Mary,
is in this Sacrament . . . I receive Thee, the price of my redemption, for
Whose love I have watched, studied, and laboured. Thee have I preached; Thee
have I taught. Never have I said anything against Thee: if anything was not
well said, that is to be attributed to my ignorance. Neither do I wish to
be obstinate in my opinions, but if I have written anything erroneous concerning
this sacrament or other matters, I submit all to the judgment and correction
of the Holy Roman Church, in whose obedience I now pass from this life.
He died on 7 March, 1274.
Numerous miracles attested his sanctity, and he was canonized by John XXII,
18 July, 1323. The monks of Fossa Nuova were anxious to keep his sacred remains,
but by order of Urban V the body was given to his Dominican brethren, and was
solemnly translated to the Dominican church at Toulouse, 28 January, 1369. A
magnificent shrine erected in 1628 was destroyed during the French Revolution,
and the body was removed to the Church of St. Sernin, where it now reposes in
a sarcophagus of gold and silver, which was solemnly blessed by Cardinal Desprez
on 24 July, 1878. The chief bone of his left arm is preserved in the cathedral
of Naples. The right arm, bestowed on the University of Paris, and originally
kept in the St. Thomas's Chapel of the Dominican church, is now preserved in
the Dominican Church of S. Maria Sopra Minerva in Rome, whither it was transferred
during the French Revolution.
A description
of the saint as he appeared in life is given by Calo (Prümmer, op. cit., p.
401), who says that his features corresponded with the greatness of his soul.
He was of lofty stature and of heavy build, but straight and well proportioned.
His complexion was "like the colour of new wheat": his head was large and well
shaped, and he was slightly bald. All portraits represent him as noble, meditative,
gentle yet strong. St. Pius V proclaimed St. Thomas a Doctor of the Universal
Church in the year 1567. In the Encyclical "Aeterni Patris", of 4 August, 1879,
on the restoration of Christian philosophy, Leo XIII declared him "the prince
and master of all Scholastic doctors". The same illustrious pontiff, by a Brief
dated 4 August, 1880, designated him patron of all Catholic universities, academies,
colleges, and schools throughout the world.
IIa. WRITINGS
(GENERAL REMARKS)
Although
St. Thomas lived less than fifty years, he composed more than sixty works, some
of them brief, some very lengthy. This does not necessarily mean that every
word in the authentic works was written by his hand; he was assisted by secretaries,
and biographers assure us that he could dictate to several scribes at the same
time. Other works, some of which were composed by his disciples, have been falsely
attributed to him.
In the "Scriptores
Ordinis Praedicatorum" (Paris, 1719) Fr. Echard devotes eighty-six folio pages
to St. Thomas's works, the different editions and translations (I, pp. 282-348).
Touron (op. cit., pp. 69 sqq.) says that manuscript copies were found in nearly
all the libraries of Europe, and that, after the invention of printing, copies
were multiplied rapidly in Germany, Italy, and France, portions of the "Summa
theologica" being one of the first important works printed. Peter Schöffer,
a printer of Mainz, published the "Secunda Secundae" in 1467. This is the first
known printed copy of any work of St. Thomas. The first complete edition of
the "Summa" was printed at Basle, in 1485. Many other editions of this and of
other works were published in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, especially
at Venice and at Lyons. The principal editions of all the work (Opera Omnia)
were published as follows: Rome, 1570; Venice, 1594, 1612, 1745; Antwerp, 1612;
Paris, 1660, 1871-80 (Vives); Parma, 1852-73; Rome, 1882 (the Leonine). The
Roman edition of 1570, called "the Piana", because edited by order of St. Pius
V, was the standard for many years. Besides a carefully revised text it contained
the commentaries of Cardinal Cajetan and the valuable "Tabula Aurea" of Peter
of Bergamo. The Venetian edition of 1612 was highly prized because the text
was accompanied by the Cajetan-Porrecta commentaries . . . . The Leonine edition,
begun under the patronage of Leo XIII, now continued under the master general
of the Dominicans, undoubtedly will be the most perfect of all. Critical dissertations
on each work will be given, the text will be carefully revised, and all references
will be verified. By direction of Leo XIII (Motu Proprio, 18 Jan., 1880) the
"Summa contra gentiles" will be published with the commentaries of Sylvester
Ferrariensis, whilst the commentaries of Cajetan go with the "Summa theologica".
The latter
has been published, being volumes IV-XII of the edition (last in 1906). St.
Thomas's works may be classified as philosophical, theological, scriptural,
and apologetic, or controversial. The division, however, cannot always be rigidly
maintained. The "Summa theologica", e.g., contains much that is philosophical,
whilst the "Summa contra gentiles" is principally, but not exclusively, philosophical
and apologetic. His philosophical works are chiefly commentaries on Aristotle,
and his first important theological writings were commentaries on Peter Lombard's
four books of "Sentences"; but he does not slavishly follow either the Philosopher
or the Master of the Sentences (on opinions of the Lombard rejected by theologians,
see Migne, 1841, edition of the "Summa" I, p. 451).
IIb. WRITINGS
(HIS PRINCIPAL WORKS)
Amongst the
works wherein St. Thomas's own mind and method are shown, the following deserve
special mention:
(1) "Quaestiones
disputatae" (Disputed Questions) -- These were more complete treatises on subjects
that had not been fully elucidated in the lecture halls, or concerning which
the professor's opinion had been sought. They are very valuable, because in
them the author, free from limitations as to time or space, freely expresses
his mind and gives all arguments for or against the opinions adopted. These
treatises, containing the questions "De potentia", "De malo", "De spirit. creaturis",
"De anima", "De unione Verbi Incarnati", "De virt. in communi", "De caritate",
"De corr. fraterna", "De spe", "De virt. cardinal.", "De veritate", were often
reprinted, e.g. recently by the Association of St. Paul (2 vols., Paris and
Fribourg, Switzerland, 1883).
(2) "Quodlibeta"
(may be rendered "Various Subjects", or "Free Discussions") -- They present
questions or arguments proposed and answers given in or outside the lecture
halls, chiefly in the more formal Scholastic exercises, termed circuli, conclusiones,
or determinationes, which were held once or twice a year.
(3) "De unitate
intellectus contra Averroistas" -- This opusculum refuted a very dangerous and
widespread error, viz., that there was but one soul for all men, a theory which
did away wth individual liberty and responsibility. (See AVERROES)
(4) "Commentaria
in Libros Sententiarum" (mentioned above) -- This with the following work are
the immediate forerunners of the "Summa theologica".
(5) "Summa
de veritate catholicae fidei contra gentiles" (Treatise on the Truth of the
Catholic Faith, against Unbelievers) -- This work, written at Rome, 1261-64,
was composed at the request of St. Raymond of Pennafort, who desired to have
a philosophical exposition and defence of the Christian Faith, to be used against
the Jews and Moors in Spain. It is a perfect model of patient and sound apologetics,
showing that no demonstrated truth (science) is opposed to revealed truth (faith).
The best recent editions are those of Rome, 1878 (by Uccelli), of Paris and
Fribourg, Switzerland, 1882, and of Rome, 1894. It has been translated into
many languages. It is divided into four books: I. Of God as He is in Himself;
II. Of God the Origin of Creatures; III. Of God the End of Creatures; IV. Of
God in His Revelation. It is worthy of remark that the Fathers of the Vatican
Council, treating the necessity of revelation (Coast. "Dei Filius", c. 2), employed
almost the very words used by St. Thomas in treating that subject in this work
(I, cc. iv, V), and in the "Summa theologica" (I:1:1).
(6) Three
works written by order of Urban IV --
The "Opusculum
contra errores Graecorum" refuted the errors of the Greeks on doctrines in dispute
between them and the Roman Church, viz., the procession of the Holy Ghost from
the Father and the Son, the primacy of the Roman pontiff, the Holy Eucharist,
and purgatory. It was used against the Greeks with telling effect in the Council
of Lyons (1274) and in the Council of Florence (1493). In the range of human
reasonings on deep subjects there can be found nothing to surpass the sublimity
and depth of the argument adduced by St. Thomas to prove that the Holy Ghost
proceeds from the Father and the Son (cf. Summa I:36:2); but it must be borne
in mind that our Faith is not based on that argument alone.
"Officium
de festo Corporis Christi". Mandonnet (Ecrits, p. 127) declares that it is now
established beyond doubt that St. Thomas is the author of the beautiful Office
of Corpus Christi, in which solid doctrine, tender piety, and enlightening Scriptural
citations are combined, and expressed in language remarkably accurate, beautiful,
chaste, and poetic. Here we find the well-known hymns, "Sacris Solemniis", "Pange
Lingua" (concluding in the "Tantum Ergo"), "Verbum Supernum" (concluding with
the "O Salutaris Hostia") and, in the Mass, the beautiful sequence "Lauda Sion".
In the responses of the office, St. Thomas places side by side words of the
New Testament affirming the real presence of Christ in the Blessed Sacrament
and texts from the Old Testament referring to the types and figures of the Eucharist.
Santeuil, a poet of the seventeenth century, said he would give all the verses
he had written for the one stanza of the "Verbum Supernum": "Se nascens dedit
socium, convescens in edulium: Se moriens in pretium, Se regnans dat in praemium"
-- "In birth, man's fellow-man was He, His meat, while sitting at the Board:
He died his Ransomer to be, He reigns to be his Great Reward" (tr. by Marquis
of Bute). Perhaps the gem of the whole office is the antiphon "O Sacrum Convivium"
(cf. Conway, "St. Thomas Aquinas", London and New York, 1911, p. 61).
The "Catena
Aurea' though not as original as his other writings, furnishes a striking proof
of St. Thomas's prodigious memory and manifests an intimate acquaintance with
the Fathers of the Church. The work contains a series of passages selected from
the writings of the various Fathers, arranged in such order that the texts cited
form a running commentary on the Gospels. The commentary on St. Matthew was
dedicated to Urban IV. An English translation of the "Catena Aurea was edited
by John Henry Newman (4 vols., Oxford 1841-1845; see Vaughan, op. cit., vol.
II,) pp. 529 sqq..
(7) The "Summa
theologica" -- This work immortalized St. Thomas. The author himself modestly
considered it simply a manual of Christian doctrine for the use of students.
In reality it is a complete scientifically arranged exposition of theology and
at the same time a summary of Christian philosophy (see SUMMÆ). In the brief
prologue St. Thomas first calls attention to the difficulties experienced by
students of sacred doctrine in his day, the causes assigned being: the multiplication
of useless questions, articles, and arguments; the lack of scientific order;
frequent repetitions, "which beget disgust and confusion in the minds of learners".
Then he adds: "Wishing to avoid these and similar drawbacks, we shall endeavour,
confiding in the Divine assistance, to treat of these things that pertain to
sacred doctrine with brevity and clearness, in so far as the subject to he treated
will permit." In the introductory question, "On Sacred Doctrine", he proves
that, besides the knowledge which reason affords, Revelation also is necessary
for salvation first, because without it men could not know the supenatural end
to which they must tend by their voluntary acts; secondly, because, without
Revelation, even the truths concerning God which could be proved by reason would
be known "only by a few, after a long time, and with the admixture of many errors".
When revealed truths have been accepted, the mind of man proceeds to explain
them and to draw conclusions from them. Hence results theology, which is a science,
because it proceeds from principles that are certain (Answer 2). The object,
or subject, of this science is God; other things are treated in it only in so
far as they relate to God (Answer 7). Reason is used in theology not to prove
the truths of faith, which are accepted on the authority of God, but to defend,
explain, and develop the doctrines revealed (Answer 8). He thus announces the
division of the "Summa": "Since the chief aim of this sacred science is to give
the knowledge of God, not only as He is in Himself, but also as He is the Beginning
of all things, and the End of all, especially of rational creatures, we shall
treat first of God; secondly, of the rational creature's advance towards God
(de motu creaturae rationalis in Deum); thirdly, of Christ, Who, as Man, is
the way by which we tend to God." God in Himself, and as He is the Creator;
God as the End of all things, especially of man; God as the Redeemer -- these
are the leading ideas, the great headings, under which all that pertains to
theology is contained.
(a) Sub-divisions
The First Part is divided into three tracts:
On those
things which pertain to the Essence of God;
On the distinction
of Persons in God (the mystery of the Trinity);
On the production
of creatures by God and on the creatures produced.
The Second
Part, On God as He is in the End of man, is sometimes called the Moral Theology
of St. Thomas, i.e., his treatise on the end of man and on human acts. It is
subdivided into two parts, known as the First Section of the Second (I-II, or
1a 2ae) and the Second of the Second (II-II, or 2a 2ae).
The First
of the Second. The first five questions are devoted to proving that man's last
end, his beatitude, consists in the possession of God. Man attains to that end
or deviates from it by human acts, i.e. by free, deliberate acts. Of human acts
he treats, first, in general (in all but the first five questions of the I-II),
secondly, in particular (in the whole of the II-II). The treatise on human acts
in general is divided into two parts: the first, on human acts in themselves;
the other, on the principles or causes, extrinsic or intrinsic, of those acts.
In these tracts and in the Second of the Second, St. Thomas, following Aristotle,
gives a perfect description and a wonderfully keen analysis of the movements
of man's mind and heart.
The Second
of the Second considers human acts, i.e., the virtues and vices, in particular.
In it St. Thomas treats, first, of those things that pertain to all men, no
matter what may be their station in life, and, secondly, of those things that
pertain to some men only. Things that pertain to all men are reduced to seven
headings: Faith, Hope, and Charity; Prudence, Justice, Fortitude, and Temperance.
Under each title, in order to avoid repetitions, St. Thomas treats not only
of the virtue itself, but also of the vices opposed to it, of the commandment
to practise it, and of the gift of the Holy Ghost which corresponds to it. Things
pertaining to some men only are reduced to three headings: the graces freely
given (gratia gratis datae) to certain individuals for the good of the Church,
such as the gifts of tongues, of prophecy, of miracles; the active and the contemplative
life; the particular states of life, and duties of those who are in different
states, especially bishops and religious.
The Third
Part treats of Christ and of the benefits which He has conferred upon man, hence
three tracts: On the Incarnation, and on what the Saviour did and suffered;
On the Sacraments, which were instituted by Christ, and have their efficacy
from His merits and sufferings; On Eternal Life, i.e., on the end of the world,
the resurrection of bodies, judgment, the punishment of the wicked, the happiness
of the just who, through Christ, attain to eternal life in heaven.
Eight years
were given to the composition of this work, which was begun at Rome, where the
First Part and the First of the Second were written (1265-69). The Second of
the Second, begun in Rome, was completed in Paris (1271). In 1272 St. Thomas
went to Naples, where the Third Part was written, down to the ninetieth question
of the tract On Penance (see Leonine edition, I, p. xlii). The work has been
completed by the addition of a supplement, drawn from other writings of St.
Thomas, attributed by some to Peter of Auvergne, by others to Henry of Gorkum.
These attributions are rejected by the editors of the Leonine edition (XI, pp.
viii, xiv, xviii). Mandonnet (op. cit., 153) inclines to the very probable opinion
that it was compiled by Father Reginald de Piperno, the saint's faithful companion
and secretary. The entire "Summa" contains 38 Treatises, 612 Questions, subdivided
into 3120 articles, in which about 10,000 objections are proposed and answered.
So admirably is the promised order preserved that, by reference to the beginning
of the Tracts and Questions, one can see at a glance what place it occupies
in the general plan, which embraces all that can be known through theology of
God, of man, and of their mutual relations . . . "The whole Summa is arranged
on a uniform plan. Every subject is introduced as a question, and divided into
articles. . . . Each article has also a uniform disposition of parts. The topic
is introduced as an inquiry for discussion, under the term Utrum, whether --
e.g. Utrum Deus sit? The objections against the proposed thesis are then stated.
These are generally three or four in number, but sometimes extend to seven or
more. The conclusion adopted is then introduced by the words, Respondeo dicendum.
At the end of the thesis expounded the objections are answered, under the forms,
ad primum, ad secundum, etc." . . . . The "Summa" is Christian doctrine in scientific
form; it is human reason rendering its highest service in defence and explanation
of the truths of the Christian religion. It is the answer of the matured and
saintly doctor to the question of his youth: What is God? Revelation, made known
in the Scriptures and by tradition; reason and its best results; soundness and
fulness of doctrine, order, conciseness and clearness of expression, effacement
of self, the love of truth alone, hence a remarkable fairness towards adversaries
and calmness in combating their errors; soberness and soundness of judgment,
together with a charmingly tender and enlightened piety -- these are all found
in this "Summa" more than in his other writings, more than in the writings of
his contemporaries, for "among the Scholastic doctors, the chief and master
of all, towers Thomas Aquinas, who, as Cajetan observes (In 2am 2ae, Q. 148,
a. 4) 'because he most venerated the ancient doctors of the Church in a certain
way seems to have inherited the intellect of all'" (Encyclical, "Aeterni Patris",
of Leo XIII).
(b) Editions
and Translations
It is impossible
to mention the various editions of the "Summa", which has been in constant use
for more than seven hundred years. Very few books have been so often republished.
The first complete edition, printed at Basle in 1485, was soon followed by others,
e.g., at Venice in 1505, 1509, 1588, 1594; at Lyons in 1520, 1541, 1547, 1548,
1581, 1588, 1624,1655; at Antwerp in 1575. These are enumerated by Touron (op.
cit., p. 692), who says that about the same time other editions were published
at Rome, Antwerp, Rouen, Paris, Douai, Cologne, Amsterdam, Bologna, etc. The
editors of the Leonine edition deem worthy of mention those published at Paris
in 1617, 1638, and 1648, at Lyons in 1663, 1677, and 1686, and a Roman edition
of 1773 (IV, pp. xi, xii). Of all old editions they consider the most accurate
two published at Padua, one in 1698, the other in 1712, and the Venice edition
of 1755. Of recent editions the best are the -- following: the Leonine; the
Migne editions (Paris, 1841, 1877); the first volume of the 1841 edition containing
the "Libri quatuor sententiarum" of Peter Lombard; the very practical Faucher
edition (5 vols. small quarto, Paris, 1887), dedicated to Cardinal Pecci, enriched
with valuable notes; a Roman edition of 1894. The "Summa" has been translated
into many modern languages as well.
IIc. WRITINGS
(METHOD AND STYLE)
It is not
possible to characterize the method of St. Thomas by one word, unless it can
be called eclectic. It is Aristotelean, Platonic, and Socratic; it is inductive
and deductive; it is analytic and synthetic. He chose the best that could he
found in those who preceded him, carefully sifting the chaff from the wheat,
approving what was true, rejecting the false. His powers of synthesis were extraordinary.
No writer surpassed him in the faculty of expressing in a few well-chosen words
the truth gathered from a multitude of varying and conflicting opinions; and
in almost every instance the student sees the truth and is perfectly satisfied
with St. Thomas's summary and statement. Not that he would have students swear
by the words of a master. In philosophy, he says, arguments from authority are
of secondary importance; philosophy does not consist in knowing what men have
said, but in knowing the truth (In I lib. de Coelo, lect. xxii; II Sent., D.
xiv, a. 2, ad 1um). He assigns its proper place to reason used in theology (see
below: Influence of St. Thomas), but he keeps it within its own sphere. Against
the Traditionalists the Holy See has declared that the method used by St. Thomas
and St. Bonaventure does not lead to Rationalism (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 1652).
Not so bold or original in investigating nature as were Albertus Magnus and
Roger Bacon, he was, nevertheless, abreast of his time in science, and many
of his opinions are of scientific value in the twentieth century. Take, for
instance, the following: "In the same plant there is the two-fold virtue, active
and passive, though sometimes the active is found in one and the passive in
another, so that one plant is said to be masculine and the other feminine" (3
Sent., D. III, Q. ii, a 1).
The style
of St. Thomas is a medium between the rough expressiveness of some Scholastics
and the fastidious elegance of John of Salisbury; it is remarkable for accuracy,
brevity, and completeness. Pope Innocent VI (quoted in the Encyclical, "Aeterni
Patris", of Leo XIII) declared that, with the exception of the canonical writings,
the works of St. Thomas surpass all others in "accuracy of expression and truth
of statement" (habet proprietatem verborum, modum dicendorum, veritatem sententiarum).
Great orators, such as Bossuet, Lacordaire, Monsabré, have studied his style,
and have been influenced by it, but they could not reproduce it. The same is
true of theological writers. Cajetan knew St. Thomas's style better than any
of his disciples, but Cajetan is beneath his great master in clearness and accuracy
of expression, in soberness and solidity of judgment. St. Thomas did not attain
to this perfection without an effort. He was a singularly blessed genius, but
he was also an indefatigable worker, and by continued application he reached
that stage of perfection in the art of writing where the art disappears. "The
author's manuscript of the Summa Contra Gentiles is still in great part extant.
It is now in the Vatican Library. The manuscript consists of strips of parchment,
of various shades of colour, contained in an old parchment cover to which they
were originally stitched. The writing is in double column, and difficult to
decipher, abounding in abbreviations, often passing into a kind of shorthand.
Throughout many passages a line is drawn in sign of erasure" (Rickaby, Op. cit.,
preface: see Ucelli ed., "Sum. cont. gent.", Rome, 1878).
III. INFLUENCES
EXERTED ON ST. THOMAS
How was this
great genius formed? The causes that exerted an influence on St. Thomas were
of two kinds, natural and supernatural.
A. Natural
Causes
(1) As a
foundation, he "was a witty child, and had received a good soul" (Wisdom 8:19).
From the beginning he manifested precocious and extraordinary talent and thoughtfulness
beyond his years.
(2) His education
was such that great things might have been expected of him. His training at
Monte Cassino, at Naples, Paris, and Cologne was the best that the thirteenth
century could give, and that century was the golden age of education. That it
afforded excellent opportunities for forming great philosophers and theologians
is evident from the character of St. Thomas's contemporaries. Alexander of Hales,
Albertus Magnus, St. Bonaventure, St. Raymond of Pennafort, Roger Bacon, Hugo
a S. Charo, Vincent of Beauvais, not to mention scores of others, prove beyond
all doubt that those were days of really great scholars. (See Walsh, "The Thirteenth,
Greatest of Centuries", New York, 1907.) The men who trained St. Thomas were
his teachers at Monte Cassino and Naples, but above all Albertus Magnus, under
whom he studied at Paris and Cologne.
(3) The books
that exercised the greatest influence on his mind were the Bible, the Decrees
of the councils and of the popes, the works of the Fathers, Greek and Latin,
especially of St. Augustine, the "Sentences" of Peter Lombard, the writings
of the philosophers, especially of Plato, Aristotle, and Boethius. If from these
authors any were to be selected for special mention, undoubtedly they would
be Aristotle, St. Augustine, and Peter Lombard. In another sense the writings
of St. Thomas were influenced by Averroes, the chief opponent whom he had to
combat in order to defend and make known the true Aristotle.
(4) It must
be borne in mind that St. Thomas was blessed with a retentive memory and great
powers of penetration. Father Daniel d'Agusta once pressed him to say what he
considered the greatest grace he had ever received, sanctifying grace of course
excepted. "I think that of having understood whatever I have read", was the
reply. St. Antoninus declared that "he remembered everything be had read, so
that his mind was like a huge library" (cf. Drane, op. cit., p. 427; Vaughan,
op. cit., II, p. 567). The bare enumeration of the texts of Scripture cited
in the "Summa theologica" fills eighty small-print columns in the Migne edition,
and by many it is not unreasonably supposed that he learned the Sacred Books
by heart while he was imprisoned in the Castle of San Giovanni. Like St. Dominic
he had a special love for the Epistles of St. Paul, on which he wrote commentaries
(recent edition in 2 vols., Turin, 1891).
(5) Deep
reverence for the Faith, as made known by tradition, characterizes all his writings.
The consuetudo ecclesiae -- the practice of the Church -- should prevail over
the authority of any doctor (Summa II-II:10:12). In the "Summa" he quotes from
19 councils, 41 popes, and 52 Fathers of the Church. A slight acquaintance with
his writings will show that among the Fathers his favourite was St. Augustine
(on the Greek Fathers see Vaughan, op. cit., II, cc. iii sqq.).
(6) With
St. Augustine (II De doctr. Christ., c. xl), St. Thomas held that whatever there
was of truth in the writings of pagan philosophers should be taken from them,
as from "unjust possessors", and adapted to the teaching of the true religion
(Summa I:84:5). In the "Summa" alone he quotes from the writings of 46 philosophers
and poets, his favourite authors being Aristotle, Plato, and, among Christian
writers, Boethius. From Aristotle he learned that love of order and accuracy
of expression which are characteristic of his own works. From Boethius he learned
that Aristotle's works could be used without detriment to Christianity. He did
not follow Boethius in his vain attempt to reconcile Plato and Aristotle. In
general the Stagirite was his master, but the elevation and grandeur of St.
Thomas's conceptions and the majestic dignity of his methods of treatment speak
strongly of the sublime Plato.
B. Supernatural
Causes
Even if we
do not accept as literally true the declaration of John XXII, that St. Thomas
wrought as many miracles as there are articles in the "Summa", we must, nevertheless,
go beyond causes merely natural in attempting to explain his extraordinary career
and wonderful writings.
(1) Purity
of mind and body contributes in no small degree to clearness of vision (see
St. Thomas, "Commentaries on I Cor., c. vii", Lesson v). By the gift of purity,
miraculously granted at the time of the mystic girdling, God made Thomas's life
angelic; the perspicacity and depth of his intellect, Divine grace aiding, made
him the "Angelic Doctor".
(2) The spirit
of prayer, his great piety and devotion, drew down blessings on his studies.
Explaining why he read, every day, portions of the "Conferences" of Cassian,
he said: "In such reading I find devotion, whence I readily ascend to contemplation"
(Prümmer, op. cit., p. 32). In the lessons of the Breviary read on his feast
day it is explicitly stated that he never began to study without first invoking
the assistance of God in prayer; and when he wrestled with obscure passages
of the Scriptures, to prayer he added fasting.
(3) Facts
narrated by persons who either knew St. Thomas in life or wrote at about the
time of his canonization prove that he received assistance from heaven. To Father
Reginald he declared that he had learned more in prayer and contemplation than
he had acquired from men or books (Prümmer, op. cit., p. 36). These same authors
tell of mysterious visitors who came to encourage and enlighten him. The Blessed
Virgin appeared, to assure him that his life and his writings were acceptable
to God, and that he would persevere in his holy vocation. Sts. Peter and Paul
came to aid him in interpreting an obscure passage in Isaias. When humility
caused him to consider himself unworthy of the doctorate, a venerable religious
of his order (supposed to be St. Dominic) appeared to encourage him and suggested
the text for his opening discourse (Prümmer, op. cit., 29, 37; Tocco in "Acta
SS.", VII Mar.; Vaughan, op. cit., II, 91). His ecstasies have been mentioned.
His abstractions in presence of King Louis IX (St. Louis) and of distinguished
visitors are related by all biographers. Hence, even if allowance be made for
great enthusiasm on the part of his admirers, we must conclude that his extraordinary
learning cannot be attributed to merely natural causes. Of him it may truly
be said that he laboured as if all depended on his own efforts and prayed as
if all depended on God.
IVa. INFLUENCE
OF ST. THOMAS (ON SANCTITY)
The great
Scholastics were holy as well as learned men. Alexander of Hales, St. Albertus
Magnus, St. Thomas, and St. Bonaventure prove that learning does not necessarily
dry up devotion. The angelic Thomas and the seraphic Bonaventure represent the
highest types of Christian scholarship, combining eminent learning with heroic
sanctity. Cardinal Bessarion called St. Thomas "the most saintly of learned
men and the most learned of saints". His works breathe the spirit of God, a
tender and enlightened piety, built on a solid foundation, viz. the knowledge
of God, of Christ, of man. The "Summa theologica" may he made a manual of piety
as well as a text-book for the study of theology (Cf. Drane, op. cit., p. 446).
St. Francis de Sales, St. Philip Neri, St. Charles Borromeo, St. Vincent Ferrer,
St. Pius V, St. Antoninus constantly studied St. Thomas. Nothing could be more
inspiring than his treatises on Christ, in His sacred Person, in His life and
sufferings. His treatise on the sacraments, especially on penance and the Eucharist,
would melt even hardened hearts. He takes pains to explain the various ceremonies
of the Mass ("De ritu Eucharistiae" in Summa III:83), and no writer has explained
more clearly than St. Thomas the effects produced in the souls of men by this
heavenly Bread (Summa III:79). The principles recently urged, in regard to frequent
Communion, by Pius X ("Sacra Trid. Synodus", 1905) are found in St. Thomas (Summa
III:79:8, III:80:10), although he is not so explicit on this point as he is
on the Communion of children. In the Decree "Quam Singulari" (1910) the pope
cites St. Thomas, who teaches that, when children begin to have some use of
reason, so that they can conceive some devotion to the Blessed Sacrament, they
may be allowed to communicate (Summa III:80:9). The spiritual and devotional
aspects of St. Thomas's theology have been pointed out by Father Contenson,
O.P., in his "Theologia mentis et cordis". They are more fully explained by
Father Vallgornera, O.P., in his "Theologia Mystica D. Thomae", wherein the
author leads the soul to God through the purgative, illuminative, and unitive
ways. The Encyclical Letter of Leo XIII on the Holy Spirit is drawn largely
from St. Thomas, and those who have studied the "Prima Secundae" and the "Secunda
Secundae" know how admirably the saint explains the gifts and fruits of the
Holy Ghost, as well as the Beatitudes, and their relations to the different
virtues Nearly all good spiritual writers seek in St. Thomas definitions of
the virtues which they recommend.
IVb. INFLUENCE
OF ST. THOMAS (ON INTELLECTUAL LIFE)
Since the
days of Aristotle, probably no one man has exercised such a powerful influence
on the thinking world as did St. Thomas. His authority was very great during
his lifetime. The popes, the universities, the studia of his order were anxious
to profit by his learning and prudence. Several of his important works were
written at the request of others, and his opinion was sought by all classes.
On several occasions the doctors of Paris referred their disputes to him and
gratefully abided by his decision (Vaughan, op. cit., II, 1 p. 544). His principles,
made known by his writings, have continued to influence men even to this day.
This subject cannot be considered in all its aspects, nor is that necessary.
His influence on matters purely philosophical is fully explained in histories
of philosophy. (Theologians who followed St. Thomas will be mentioned in THOMISM.
See also ORDER OF PREACHERS -- II, A, 2, d) His paramount importance and influence
may be explained by considering him as the Christian Aristotle, combining in
his person the best that the world has known in philosophy and theology. It
is in this light that he is proposed as a model by Leo XIII in the famous Encyclical
"Aeterni Patris". The work of his life may be summed up in two propositions:
he established the true relations between faith and reason; he systematized
theology.
(1) Faith
and Reason
The principles
of St. Thomas on the relations between faith and reason were solemnly proclaimed
in the Vatican Council. The second, third, and fourth chapters of the Constitution
"Dei Filius" read like pages taken from the works of the Angelic Doctor. First,
reason alone is no sufficient to guide men: they need Revelation; we must carefully
distinguish the truths known by reason from higher truths (mysteries) known
by Revelation. Secondly, reason and Revelation, though distinct, are not opposed
to each other. Thirdly, faith preserves reason from error; reason should do
service in the cause of faith. Fourthly, this service is rendered in three ways:
reason should
prepare the minds of men to receive the Faith by proving the truths which faith
presupposes (praeambula fidei);
reason should
explain and develop the truths of Faith and should propose them in scientific
form;
reason should
defend the truths revealed by Almighty God.
This is a
development of St. Augustine's famous saying (De Trin., XIV, c. i), that the
right use of reason is "that by which the most wholesome faith is begotten .
. . is nourished, defended, and made strong" These principles are proposed by
St. Thomas in many places, especially in the following: "In Boethium, da Trin.
Proem.", Q. ii, a. 1; "Sum. cont. gent.", I, cc. iii-ix; Summa I:1:1, I:1:5,
I:1:8, I:32:1, I:84:5. St. Thomas's services to the Faith are thus summed up
by Leo XIII in the Encyclical "Aeterni Patris": "He won this title of distinction
for himself: that singlehanded he victoriously combated the errors of former
times, and supplied invincible arms to put to rout those which might in after
times spring up. Again, clearly distinguishing, as is fitting, reason and faith,
he both preserved and had regard for the rights of each; so much so, indeed,
that reason, borne on the wings of Thomas, can scarcely rise higher, while faith
could scarcely expect more or stronger aids from reason than those which she
has already obtained through Thomas." St. Thomas did not combat imaginary foes;
he attacked living adversaries. The works of Aristotle had been introduced into
France in faulty translations and with the misleading commentaries of Jewish
and Moorish philosophers. This gave rise to a flood of errors which so alarmed
the authorities that the reading of Aristotle's Physics and Metaphysics was
forbidden by Robert de Courçon in 1210, the decree being moderated by Gregory
IX in 1231. There crept into the University of Paris an insidious spirit of
irreverence and Rationalism, represented especially by Abelard and Raymond Lullus,
which claimed that reason could know and prove all things, even the mysteries
of Faith. Under the authority of Averroes dangerous doctrines were propagated,
especially two very pernicious errors: first, that philosophy and religion being
in different regions, what is true in religion might be false in philosophy;
secondly, that all men have but one soul. Averroes was commonly styled "The
Commentator", but St. Thomas says he was "not so much a Peripatetic as a corruptor
of Peripatetic philosophy" (Opuse. de unit. intell.). Applying a principle of
St. Augustine (see I:84:5), following in the footsteps of Alexander of Hales
and Albertus Magnus, St. Thomas resolved to take what was true from the "unjust
possessors", in order to press it into the service of revealed religion. Objections
to Aristotle would cease if the true Aristotle were made known; hence his first
care was to obtain a new translation of the works of the great philosopher.
Aristotle was to be purified; false commentators were to be refuted; the most
influential of these was Averroes, hence St. Thomas is continually rejecting
his false interpretations.
(2) Theology
Systematized The next step was to press reason into the service of the Faith,
by putting Christian doctrine into scientific form. Scholasticism does not consist,
as some persons imagine, in useless discussions and subtleties, but in this,
that it expresses sound doctrine in language which is accurate, clear, and concise.
In the Encyclical "Aeterni Patris" Leo XIII, citing the words of Sixtus V (Bull
"Triumphantis", 1588), declares that to the right use of philosophy we are indebted
for "those noble endowments which make Scholastic theology so formidable to
the enemies of truth", because "that ready coherence of cause and effect, that
order and array of a disciplined army in battle, those clear definitions and
distinctions, that strength of argument and those keen discussions by which
light is distinguished from darkness, the true from the false, expose and lay
bare, as it were, the falsehoods of heretics wrapped around by a cloud of subterfuges
and fallacies". When the great Scholastics had written, there was light where
there had been darkness, there was order where confusion had prevailed. The
work of St. Anselm and of Peter Lombard was perfected by the Scholastic theologians.
Since their days no substantial improvements have been made in the plan and
system of theology, although the field of apologetics has been widened, and
positive theology has become more important.
IVc. INFLUENCE
OF ST. THOMAS (HIS DOCTRINE FOLLOWED)
Within a
short time after his death the writings of St. Thomas were universally esteemed.
The Dominicans naturally took the lead in following St. Thomas. The general
chapter held in Paris in 1279 pronounced severe penalties against all who dared
to speak irreverently of him or of his writings. The chapters held in Paris
in 1286, at Bordeaux in 1287, and at Lucca in 1288 expressly required the brethren
to follow the doctrine of Thomas, who at that time had not been canonized (Const.
Ord. Praed., n. 1130). The University of Paris, on the occasion of Thomas's
death, sent an official letter of condolence to the general chapter of the Dominicans,
declaring that, equally with his brethren, the university experienced sorrow
at the loss of one who was their own by many titles (see text of letter in Vaughan,
op. cit., II, p. 82). In the Encyclical "Aeterni Patris" Leo XIII mentions the
Universities of Paris, Salamanca, Alcalá, Douai, Toulouse, Louvain, Padua, Bologna,
Naples, Coimbra as "the homes of human wisdom where Thomas reigned supreme,
and the minds of all, of teachers as well as of taught, rested in wonderful
harmony under the shield and authority of the Angelic Doctor". To the list may
be added Lima and Manila, Fribourg and Washington. Seminaries and colleges followed
the lead of the universities. The "Summa" gradually supplanted the "Sentences"
as the textbook of theology. Minds were formed in accordance with the principles
of St. Thomas; he became the great master, exercising a world-wide influence
on the opinions of men and on their writings; for even those who did not adopt
all of his conclusions were obliged to give due consideration to his opinions.
It has been estimated that 6000 commentaries on St. Thomas's works have been
written. Manuals of theology and of philosophy, composed with the intention
of imparting his teaching, translations, and studies, or digests (études), of
portions of his works have been published in profusion during the last six hundred
years and to-day his name is in honour all over the world (see THOMISM). In
every one of the general councils held since his death St. Thomas has been singularly
honoured. At the Council of Lyons his book "Contra errores Graecorum" was used
with telling effect against the Greeks. In later disputes, before and during
the Council of Florence, John of Montenegro, the champion of Latin orthodoxy,
found St. Thomas's works a source of irrefragable arguments. The "Decretum pro
Armenis" (Instruction for the Armenians), issued by the authority of that council,
is taken almost verbatim from his treatise, "De fidei articulis et septem sacramentis"
(see Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 695). "In the Councils of Lyons, Vienne, Florence,
and the Vatican", writes Leo XIII (Encyclical "Aeterni Patris"), "one might
almost say that Thomas took part in and presided over the deliberations and
decrees of the Fathers contending against the errors of the Greeks, of heretics,
and Rationalists, with invincible force and with the happiest results." But
the chief and special glory of Thomas, one which he has shared with none of
the Catholic doctors, is that the Fathers of Trent made it part of the order
of the conclave to lay upon the altar, together with the code of Sacred Scripture
and the decrees of the Supreme Pontiffs, the Summa of Thomas Aquinas, whence
to seek counsel, reason, and inspiration. Greater influence than this no man
could have. Before this section is closed mention should be made of two books
widely known and highly esteemed, which were inspired by and drawn from the
writings of St. Thomas. The Catechism of the Council of Trent, composed by disciples
of the Angelic Doctor, is in reality a compendium of his theology, in convenient
form for the use of parish priests. Dante's "Divina Commedia" has been called
"the Summa of St. Thomas in verse", and commentators trace the great Florentine
poet's divisions and descriptions of the virtues and vices to the "Secunda Secundae".
IVd. INFLUENCE
OF ST. THOMAS (APPRECIATION)
(1) In the
Church
The esteem
in which he was held during his life has not been diminished, but rather increased,
in the course of the six centuries that have elapsed since his death. The position
which he occupies in the Church is well explained by that great scholar Leo
XIII, in the Encyclical "Aeterni Patris", recommending the study of Scholastic
philosophy: "It is known that nearly all the founders and framers of laws of
religious orders commanded their societies to study and religiously adhere to
the teachings of St. Thomas. . . To say nothing of the family of St. Dominic,
which rightly claims this great teacher for its own glory, the statutes of the
Benedictines, the Carmelites, the Augustinians, the Society of Jesus, and many
others, all testify that they are bound by this law." Amongst the "many others"
the Servites, the Passionists, the Barnabites, and the Sulpicians have been
devoted in an especial manner to the study of St. Thomas. The principal ancient
universities where St. Thomas ruled as the great master have been enumerated
above. The Paris doctors called him the morning star, the luminous sun, the
light of the whole Church. Stephen, Bishop of Paris, repressing those who dared
to attack the doctrine of "that most excellent Doctor, the blessed Thomas",
calls him "the great luminary of the Catholic Church, the precious stone of
the priesthood, the flower of doctors, and the bright mirror of the University
of Paris" (Drane, op. cit., p. 431). In the old Louvain University the doctors
were required to uncover and bow their heads when they pronounced the name of
Thomas (Goudin, op. cit., p. 21).
"The ecumenical
councils, where blossoms the flower of all earthly wisdom, have always been
careful to hold Thomas Aquinas in singular honour" (Leo XIII in "Aeterni Patris").
This subject has been sufficiently treated above. The "Bullarium Ordinis Praedicatorum",
published in 1729-39, gives thirty-eight Bulls in which eighteen sovereign pontiffs
praised and recommended the doctrine of St. Thomas (see also Vaughan, op. cit.,
II, c. ii; Berthier, op. cit., pp. 7 sqq.). These approbations are recalled
and renewed by Leo XIII, who lays special stress on "the crowning testimony
of Innocent VI: `His teaching above that of others, the canons alone excepted,
enjoys such an elegance of phraseology, a method of statement, a truth of proposition,
that those who hold it are never found swerving from the path of truth, and
he who dare assail it will always be suspected of error (ibid.).'" Leo XIII
surpassed his predecessors in admiration of St. Thomas, in whose works he declared
a remedy can be found for many evils that afflict society (see Berthier, op.
cit., introd.). The notable Encyclical Letters with which the name of that illustrious
pontiff will always be associated show how he had studied the works of the Angelic
Doctor. This is very noticeable in the letters on Christian marriage, the Christian
constitution of states, the condition of the working classes, and the study
of Holy Scripture. Pope Pius X, in several letters, e.g. in the "Pascendi Dominici
Gregis" (September, 1907), has insisted on the observance of the recommendations
of Leo XIII concerning the study of St. Thomas. An attempt to give names of
Catholic writers who have expressed their appreciation of St. Thomas and of
his influence would be an impossible undertaking; for the list would include
nearly all who have written on philosophy or theology since the thirteenth century,
as well as hundreds of writers on other subjects. Commendations and eulogies
are found in the introductory chapters of all good commentaries. An incomplete
list of authors who have collected these testimonies is given by Father Berthier
(op. cit., p. 22). . . .
(2) Outside
the Church
(a) Anti-Scholastics
-- Some persons have been and are still opposed to everything that comes under
the name of Scholasticism, which they bold to be synonymous with subtleties
and useless discussions. From the prologue to the "Summa" it is clear that St.
Thomas was opposed to all that was superfluous and confusing in Scholastic studies.
When people understand what true Scholasticism means, their objections will
cease.
(b) Heretics
and Schismatics -- "A last triumph was reserved for this incomparable man --
namely, to compel the homage, praise, and admiration of even the very enemies
of the Catholic name" (Leo XIII, ibid.). St. Thomas's orthodoxy drew upon him
the hatred of all Greeks who were opposed to union with Rome. The united Greeks,
however, admire St. Thomas and study his works (see above Translations of the
"Summa"). The leaders of the sixteenth-century revolt honoured St. Thomas by
attacking him, Luther being particularly violent in his coarse invectives against
the great doctor. Citing Bucer's wild boast, "Take away Thomas and I will destroy
the Church", Leo XIII (ibid.) remarks, "The hope was vain, but the testimony
has its value". Calo, Tocco, and other biographers relate that St. Thomas, travelling
from Rome to Naples, converted two celebrated Jewish rabbis, whom he met at
the country house of Cardinal Richard (Prümmer, op. cit., p. 33; Vaughan, op.
cit., I, p. 795). Rabbi Paul of Burgos, in the fifteenth century, was converted
by reading the works of St. Thomas. Theobald Thamer, a disciple of Melancthon,
abjured his heresy after he had read the "Summa", which he intended to refute.
The Calvinist Duperron was converted in the same way, subsequently becoming
Archbishop of Sens and a cardinal (see Conway, O.P., op. cit., p. 96). After
the bitterness of the first period of Protestantism had passed away, Protestants
saw the necessity of retaining many parts of Catholic philosophy and theology,
and those who came to know St. Thomas were compelled to admire him. Überweg
says "He brought the Scholastic philosophy to its highest stage of development,
by effecting the most perfect accommodation that was possible of the Aristotelian
philosophy to ecclesiastical orthodoxy" (op. cit., p. 440). R. Seeberg in the
"New Schaff-Herzog Religious Encyclopedia" (New York, 1911) devotes ten columns
to St. Thomas, and says that "at all points he succeeded in upholding the church
doctrine as credible and reasonable" (XI, p. 427). For many years, especially
since the days of Pusey and Newman, St. Thomas has been in high repute at Oxford.
Recently the "Summa contra gentiles" was placed on the list of subjects which
a candidate may offer in the final honour schools of Litterae Humaniores at
that university (cf. Walsh, op. cit., c. xvii). For several years Father De
Groot, O.P., has been the professor of Scholastic philosophy in the University
of Amsterdam, and courses in Scholastic philosophy have been established in
some of the leading non-Catholic universities of the United States. Anglicans
have a deep admiration for St. Thomas. Alfred Mortimer, in the chapter "The
Study of Theology" of his work entitled "Catholic Faith and Practice" (2 vols.,
New York, 1909), regretting that "the English priest has ordinarily no scientific
acquaintance with the Queen of Sciences", and proposing a remedy, says, "The
simplest and most perfect sketch of universal theology is to be found in the
Summa of St. Thomas" (vol. II, pp. 454, 465).
V. ST. THOMAS
AND MODERN THOUGHT
In the Syllabus
of 1864 Pius IX condemned a proposition in which it was stated that the method
and principles of the ancient Scholastic doctors were not suited to the needs
of our times and the progress of science (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 1713). In the
Encyclical "Aeterni Patris" Leo XIII points out the benefits to be derived from
"a practical reform of philosophy by restoring the renowned teaching of St.
Thomas Aquinas". He exhorts the bishops to "restore the golden wisdom of Thomas
and to spread it far and wide for the defence and beauty of the Catholic Faith,
for the good of society, and for the advantage of all the sciences". In the
pages of the Encyclical immediately preceding these words he explains why the
teaching of St. Thomas would produce such most desirable results: St. Thomas
is the great master to explain and defend the Faith, for his is "the solid doctrine
of the Fathers and the Scholastics, who so clearly and forcibly demonstrate
the firm foundations of the Faith, its Divine origin, its certain truth, the
arguments that sustain it, the benefits it has conferred on the human race,
and its perfect accord with reason, in a manner to satisfy completely minds
open to persuasion, however unwilling and repugnant". The career of St. Thomas
would in itself have justified Leo XIII in assuring men of the nineteenth century
that the Catholic Church was not opposed to the right use of reason. The sociological
aspects of St. Thomas are also pointed out: "The teachings of Thomas on the
true meaning of liberty, which at this time is running into license, on the
Divine origin of all authority, on laws and their force, on the paternal and
just rule of princes, on obedience to the highest powers, on mutual charity
one towards another -- on all of these and kindred subjects, have very great
and invincible force to overturn those principles of the new order which are
well known to be dangerous to the peaceful order of things and to public safety"
(ibid.). The evils affecting modern society had been pointed out by the pope
in the Letter "Inscrutabili" of 21 April, 1878, and in the one on Socialism,
Communism, and Nihilism ("The Great Encyclicals of Leo XIII", pp. 9 sqq.; 22
sqq.). How the principles of the Angelic Doctor will furnish a remedy for these
evils is explained here in a general way, more particularly in the Letters on
the Christian constitution of states, human liberty, the chief duties of Christians
as citizens, and on the conditions of the working classes (ibid., pp. 107, 135,
180, 208).
It is in
relation to the sciences that some persons doubt the availability of St. Thomas's
writings; and the doubters are thinking of the physical and experimental sciences,
for in metaphysics the Scholastics are admitted to be masters. Leo XIII calls
attention to the following truths: (a) The Scholastics were not opposed to investigation.
Holding as a principle in anthropology "that the human intelligence is only
led to the knowledge of things without body and matter by things sensible, they
well understood that nothing was of greater use to the philosopher than diligently
to search into the mysteries of nature, and to be earnest and constant in the
study of physical things" (ibid., p. 55). This principle was reduced to practice:
St. Thomas, St. Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon, and others "gave large attention
to the knowledge of natural things" (ibid., p. 56). (b) Investigation alone
is not sufficient for true science. "When facts have been established, it is
necessary to rise and apply ourselves to the study of the nature of corporeal
things, to inquire into the laws which govern them and the principles whence
their order and varied unity and mutual attraction in diversity arise" (p. 55).
Will the scientists of to-day pretend to be better reasoners than St. Thomas,
or more powerful in synthesis? It is the method and the principles of St. Thomas
that Leo XIII recommends: "If anything is taken up with too great subtlety by
the Scholastic doctors, or too carelessly stated; if there be anything that
ill agrees with the discoveries of a later age or, in a word, is improbable
in any way, it does not enter into our mind to propose that for imitation to
our age" (p. 56). Just as St. Thomas, in his day, saw a movement towards Aristotle
and philosophical studies which could not be checked, but could be guided in
the right direction and made to serve the cause of truth, so also, Leo XIII,
seeing in the world of his time a spirit of study and investigation which might
be productive of evil or of good, had no desire to check it, but resolved to
propose a moderator and master who could guide it in the paths of truth.
No better
guide could have been chosen than the clear-minded, analytic, synthetic, and
sympathetic Thomas Aquinas. His extraordinary patience and fairness in dealing
with erring philosophers, his approbation of all that was true in their writings,
his gentleness in condemning what was false, his clear-sightedness in pointing
out the direction to true knowledge in all its branches, his aptness and accuracy
in expressing the truth -- these qualities mark him as a great master not only
for the thirteenth century, but for all times. If any persons are inclined to
consider him too subtle, it is because they do not know how clear, concise,
and simple are his definitions and divisions. His two summae are masterpieces
of pedagogy, and mark him as the greatest of human teachers. Moreover, he dealt
with errors similar to many which go under the name of philosophy or science
in our days. The Rationalism of Abelard and others called forth St. Thomas's
luminous and everlasting principles on the true relations of faith and reason.
Ontologism was solidly refuted by St. Thomas nearly six centuries before the
days of Malebranche, Gioberti, and Ubaghs (see Summa I:84:5). The true doctrine
on first principles and on universals, given by him and by the other great Scholastics,
is the best refutation of Kant's criticism of metaphysical ideas (see, e.g.,
"Post. Analyt.", I, lect. xix; "De ente et essentia", c. iv; Summa I:17:3 corp.
and ad 2um; I:79:3; I:84:5; I:84:6 corp and ad 1um; I:85:2 ad 2um; I:85:3 ad
1um, ad 4um; Cf. index to "Summa": "Veritas", "Principium", "Universale"). Modern
psychological Pantheism does not differ substantially from the theory of one
soul for all men asserted by Averroes (see "De unit. intell." and Summa I:76:2;
I:79:5). The Modernistic error, which distinguishes the Christ of faith from
the Christ of history, had as its forerunner the Averroistic principle that
a thing might be true in philosophy and false in religion.
In the Encyclical
"Providentissimus Deus" (18 November, 1893) Leo XIII draws from St. Thomas's
writings the principles and wise rules which should govern scientific criticism
of the Sacred Books. From the same source recent writers have drawn principles
which are most helpful in the solution of questions pertaining to Spiritism
and Hypnotism. Are we to conclude, then, that St. Thomas's works, as he left
them, furnish sufficient instruction for scientists, philosophers, and theologians
of our times? By no means. Vetera novis augere et perficere -- "To strengthen
and complete the old by aid of the new" -- is the motto of the restoration proposed
by Leo XIII. Were St. Thomas living to-day he would gladly adopt and use all
the facts made known by recent scientific and historical investigations, but
he would carefully weigh all evidence offered in favour of the facts. Positive
theology is more necessary in our days than it was in the thirteenth century.
Leo XIII calls attention to its necessity in his Encyclical, and his admonition
is renewed by Pius X in his Letter on Modernism. But both pontiffs declare that
positive theology must not be extolled to the detriment of Scholastic theology.
In the Encyclical "Pascendi", prescribing remedies against Modernism, Pius X,
following in this his illustrious predecessor, gives the first place to "Scholastic
philosophy, especially as it was taught by Thomas Aquinas", St. Thomas is still
"The Angel of the Schools".
D.J. KENNEDY
Transcribed by Kevin Cawley
The Catholic
Encyclopedia, Volume XIV
Copyright © 1912 by Robert Appleton Company
Online Edition Copyright © 2003 by Kevin Knight
Nihil Obstat, July 1, 1912. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor
Imprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York
Used with permission.